This course is an introductory course into the philosophy of science and the philosophy of the social sciences. It has two parts. 

Part A of this course introduces core topics in logic and the philosophy of science. It deals with questions concerning (i) the aims of scientific inquiries and the differences between science and non-science, (ii) the validity of deductive reasoning and the question of the validity of any reasoning based on empirical data  and (iii) the justifiability of causal claims and (iv) the testability of empirical hypotheses. Its guiding assumption is that the problems which arise in pursuing these questions are best understood through their historical development. We begin by tracing early conceptions of scientific reasoning and demonstration from Antiquity through the Middle Ages and into the period of the Scientific Revolution. The course then turns to the sceptical challenge posed by David Hume concerning the foundations of empirical knowledge. In the final part major methodological debates of the twentieth century will be presented and evaluated, focusing in particular on Logical Empiricism and Critical Rationalism as the most influential responses to these earlier developments. 

(Part A) The philosophy of science. The lecture part (= part A) of this course consists of five sessions:

• 0. Introduction: 10^th March 2026
• 1. Scientific Reasoning in Antiquity: 17^th March 2026
• 2. Scholasticism and the Scientific Revolution: 24^th March 2026
• 3. Induction and the Presuppositions of all Empirical Observation: 7^th April 2026
• 4. "Theories of Confirmation" and the development of a new, mathematical logic: 14^th April 2026
• 5. Summary and Conclusions: 21st April 2026

There is a 20% attendance requirement for part A. The lectures take place in WU's Audimax, TC.0.10. All lectures are available as audio/slides. There is in addition a lecture text to each session available on the course homepage.

The final exam for part A takes place on April 28^th, 2026: 10:00-11:30. Attention: The Exam will be at the Campus WU. More information (location etc.) will be made available 2 weeks before the exam. 

Part B "the philosophy of the social sciences" applies concepts developed in part A to concrete problems in the social sciences. Regular attendance is mandatory = Attendance is required for all meetings. Absence is permitted for documented medical reasons only. For further information see “Additional Information for Course Participants.” (Part B) Application of the concepts of Part A and the philosophy of the social science. 100% attendance requirement. All sessions will be held at WU.

Upon successful completion of the course, students are able

(i) to demonstrate knowledge of the aims, scope, and limits of scientific inquiry and to situate methodological questions within their historical development;
(ii) to apply deductive and analytical reasoning skills in the assessment of scientific arguments and to evaluate methodological approaches in the empirical sciences;
(iii) to identify and critically assess debates concerning the methodological and epistemological relationship between the natural and the social sciences.

Learning outcomes specific to Part A

Upon completion of Part A, students are able
(i) to demonstrate knowledge of the historical development of methodological thinking in the philosophy of science;
(ii) to analyze arguments by identifying premises, conclusions, and inferential relations;
(iii) to distinguish between deductive and inductive forms of reasoning;
(iv) to explain and evaluate the limitations involved in the justification of empirical knowledge, in particular with respect to the problem of induction;
(v) to assess different approaches as to how empirical hypotheses should be tested.

Learning outcomes specific to Part B

Upon completion of Part B, students are able
(i) to analyze and critically assess the ontological status of entities studied in the social sciences, including social facts, institutions, norms, and collective practices
(ii) to explain and evaluate different conceptions of causality in the social sciences
(iii) to apply and critically assess methodological approaches to social-scientific explanation;
(iv) to use concepts and methods introduced in Part A to reconstruct, analyze, and evaluate arguments in selected texts from the philosophy of the social sciences, with particular attention to validity, explanatory adequacy and ontological commitments.

The course is divided into a lecture part (Part A) and an application/discussion part (Part B).

Part A – Lectures

A minimum attendance of 20% of the lecture sessions is required (i.e., at least 1 out of 5 sessions). Absences beyond this minimum must be justified.

Part B – Discussion / Application

Attendance at all sessions of Part B (12 May, 19 May, 26 May, 2 June) is mandatory.
Absence is permitted only for medical reasons and must be documented with a medical certificate soon after the absence. Unexcused absences will result in exclusion from participation in this course.

Absence at the MC Exam 

• Absence from the MC exam is only allowed for medical reasons.
• In case of a medical absence, students are entitled to participate in the make-up exam at the end of the semester.
• Any other reason for absence will be considered as a failed exam with 0 points.
• The absence must be reported immediately at the exam date, preferably by email.
• The corresponding medical certificate or official proof must be submitted no later than one week after the exam.
• Parallel exams, presentations, or other academic obligations are not considered as valid reasons for absence in this exam.

Lecture part (A): (unsurprisingly) consists of a number of lectures.

There is a lecture-manuscript as text in Canvas, slides (most of them audio-supported) and MC and SC questions with automated feedback. To make sure that we all are "on board", there are weekly assignments, and weekly MC/SC tests (don't worry there is really enough time for 15 questions — namely 30 minutes, you have almost one week time to choose when to complete the required MC/SC test), plus plenty of literature (primary and secondary) is made available on Canvas linked with the relevant sessions.

Application part (B): this is really the part for discussion.

There will be a very short talk (roughly 40 minutes) at the beginning of first three sessions. We will use the concepts and ideas that you have learned in Part A to analyze and critically discuss questions and/or problems in the philosophy of social science. You will have to read one text per session, and you will be provided with key question to structure your reading. We will be using various discussion formats. You are required to write your own paper in a group, final presentation and discussion of your paper at the end.

• Final MC/SC-test: 60 questions (60 minutes): Max. points: 90 points.
• Weekly assignments: 3 weekly assignments: every assignment consists in 5 main questions, max. 2 points for every question/answer (depending on the sub-questions) = 30 points max. Points are given on an all or nothing principle. 3 of the 5 main questions have to be positive in order for the assignment to be positive.
• Weekly MC/SC tests: Maximum points for 4 MC/SC tests (à 5 points) are 20 points. Every MC/SC test has 15 questions. You have 30 minutes for answering a MC/SC test.
• Short paper = group assignment in Part B, Max: 60 points. 

Points in total: 200

• 91 % - 100 % very good (1)
• 81 % - 91 % good (2)
• 81% - 71% satisfactory (3)
• 71% - 60% sufficient (4)
• 60% - 0% fail (5)

There is the possibility to get a higher grade by adding points from your engagement in part A and your class-contribution in part B and the contribution to “Discussions” on Canvas.

• Contribution in discussion sessions and during the final presentation session (in Part B): max. 10 points.
• Engagement (giving answers to questions raised in the lecture sessions (in Part A): max 5 points.
• There are + points for answering questions of your colleagues in the “Discussions”: max 7,5 points (1 point for raising a relevant question, 2,5 points for answering a question of a colleague of yours). Questions, which are raised in „Discussions“ after Part A ended, will not be included in this kind of contribution-assessment. Attention: 5-7 will not appear in the grade-book but will be calculated by us at the end of this course.

Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI / KI)

As to the weekly assignments and the short group-paper (group assignments): Yes, the use of AI tools might be helpful for checking answers, developing ideas, or checking one's spelling or grammar. Do not forget to declare any such use of AI in your submission. However: Using AI to replace your own effort and reasoning and submitting AI-generated assignments as your own work is just a case of plagiarism. If you submit AI-generated texts as your own assignments this will result in your assignment being graded with zero points for the assignment; if repeated, this will lead to disciplinary action according to WU's regulations. By registering for this course, you agree to comply with these rules.

Deadlines

Please check the deadline in "modules" in Canvas. Assignments which are turned in too late, are not accepted/will not be graded. Assignments submitted after the deadline will not be accepted and will not be graded. No exceptions will be made for any reason, even if an assignment is turned in just a few minutes late. Allowing late submissions, even by a few minutes, creates a slippery slope problem (sorites paradox): If we accept a submission 5 minutes late, other students may argue that they were only 7 minutes, or 10 minutes, and eventually very (or nay) late submissions could be said to be turned in "just a little bit late". To avoid this “Sorites problem” and ensure a fair assessment, deadlines are strict and non-negotiable.

Feedback

Please understand that I cannot provide individual feedback on all 260 assignments. A general feedback on the most common mistakes will be provided regularly in our course emails. If you would like personalized feedback on your assignment, please send an email to the TA of this course, Mr. Mathis Madler. In the case of a negative grade, you are also welcome to contact me during my office hours in Part A. There will be no opportunity for feedback on Part A's assignment grading after Part A has ended (right after the SC/MC exam in April).

Progress in your studies. 

Please log in with your WU account to use all functionalities of read!t. For off-campus access to our licensed electronic resources, remember to activate your VPN connection connection. In case you encounter any technical problems or have questions regarding read!t, please feel free to contact the library at readinglists@wu.ac.at.

Knowledge in critical thinking, logic and philosophy is welcomed but not required.

Warning: You might feel at first not comfortable with the level of generality needed in thinking about “logic and methodology” at first; just give it a while to “sink in” & raise questions in „Discussions“ (I indeed look into them every day). Don‘t forget: In part B there will be lots of discussion of the theoretical aspects in part A. 

For all questions and problems concerning Canvas and the structure of the course please only contact the TA for this course: Mr. Mathis Madler

E-mail: gabriele.mras@wu.ac.at, maximilian.margreiter@wu.ac.at

Phone: 31336-4257

In the office hours: D4, 3rd floor (Thursday: 11:00 - 12:00)

You might also contact Ms. Ursula Németh: ursula.nemeth@wu.ac.at

Please make yourself familiar with our Canvas homepage:

What is the lecture part (A), What is Application part (B)? see description in the syllabus: "course-content" + description of single sessions in "modules".

What is the attendance requirement for the lecture part (A), What is the attendance requirement for Application part (B): see description in the syllabus "attendance requirement" for the lecture part (a) and the Application part (B).

Where are the "To Dos"(Assignments/MC tests), when are the deadlines? see Syllabus "course requirements", look at each module for the deadlines.

How much of the literature has to be read in order to be able to answer the assignment-questions? The idea (and my hope) is that the lecture texts + slides are really enough to understand the topics and enough to be able to answer the assignments and the SC/MC test. It is not expected that you study all the uploaded literature. The additional literature is mainly secondary literature and chosen because of its value for further study. Please, do not "google around" or rely on AI programmes (sometimes WIKIPEDIA for example is very good, sometimes it is too superficial, and sometimes it’s just not correct at all, the same goes for ChatGPT and others).

How can I answer the "To Dos"(weekly assignments): see Canvas "Part A, Lecture Texts" and "Slides" (should be enough), there is however also a plenitude of "recommended literature" (uploaded and linked to every session in the relevant modules).

What are the assessment criteria? Information about assessment criteria, etc. can be found in this syllabus.

Weekly assignments: 3 of 5 questions have to be positive for 10 points, if not 0 points. Information about assignments deficiencies per email to Mr. Madler or come to my office- hours. Deadlines are strict.

What about the weekly SC/MC Test? it is open book, ideally you should be able to answer the questions without consulting the course material. After the deadlines no SC/MC TEST, no assignment will be accepted. The deadlines are strict!

What is the max. group-size for the group assignment in part B? Groups of 5-7 for the short paper in part B.

How will the final MC/SC test be organized? The Final Exam will be held on the campus: 28th April 10:00-11:30.

What if you miss the MC Test in April for medical reasons? There will be a 2nd date for this test: in the last week of June (but not before the middle of May). BUT: we need an official confirmation. You cannot attend the make-up test for any other than medical reasons and you cannot attend it in order improve your test results.

What about my grades? see "assessment criteria". Information about assessment criteria, etc. can be found in the syllabus. Discussion about the sum of the points for weekly assignments + MC tests + final MC test + the short paper presentation + paper at the end of each part, discussion about the final grade at the end of June only.

Whom can I ask, if I have questions, problems ... ? Me, Mathis Madler, Maximilian Margreiter.

The Final Exam will be held on: 28^th April 10:15-11:15.

The exam consists of SC questions and some MC questions. There will be a total of 60 questions.

For this SC/MC exams you have to work individually. "Collaboration" with other students, the usage of lecture notes, the use of AI tools is strictly forbidden. Electronic devices such as phones and smartwatches must be stored away. Any violation of these rules will lead to disciplinary actions in accordance with WU regulations. There is a mandatory identity check for this exam. Do not forget to bring your ID.

This course is a 6 ECTS course, which corresponds to a total workload of approximately 160–180 hours across Part A and Part B.

The lecture and discussion sessions themselves (Part A: ca. 12.5 hours; Part B: ca. 12 hours) cover only a small portion of this workload.

This course being a 6 ECTS course means that you should spend around 13–15 hours per week for: reading lecture manuscripts and slides, answering the weekly assignment-questions, completing the open-book MC/SC tests, preparing for the final exam, working on your final paper.